Marriage was regarded as a sacred sacrament (samskara) in ancient India, profoundly ingrained in philosophical and theological frameworks, in addition to being a civic institution. It was seen as an important rite of passage that symbolized social dedication and spiritual unity, particularly for women. Marriage rites such as Kanyadana, Panigrahana, and Saptapadi, which have their roots in the Dharmashastra scriptures and Vedic traditions, codified patriarchal standards while emphasizing the sacredness of the union. Through marriage, women were expected to uphold ritual purity, maintain family dharma, and perform both spiritual and domestic tasks. Literary and epigraphic sources also present counter-narratives of autonomy and spiritual prominence, despite normative texts' idealization of women's subservience, chastity, and devotion to their spouse.
By participating in philosophical discussions, individuals such as Maitreyi and Gargi challenged preconceived notions and proposed that intellectual agency and the sacrament of marriage could coexist. Single interpretations of female identity in marriage were further complicated by the complex intersections of obligation, resistance, and moral power exemplified by epic heroines like Draupadi and Savitri. In addition to influencing women's social mobility, legitimacy, and inheritance rights, caste prescriptions influenced marital alliances, particularly through Anuloma and Pratiloma partnerships. Even though they lived in hierarchical societies, women occasionally held sway in ascetic communities, royal courts, and matrilineal customs.
This study examines how, for women in ancient India, the sacrament of marriage was both powerful and limiting. In addition to allowing for moments of agency and resistance, it examines how ritual, legal, and philosophical aspects shaped feminine duties and obligations. The approach illuminates the changing nature of gender, spirituality, and social order by fusing textual traditions with lived realities to show the complex place of women within traditional marriage frameworks.
International Journal of History
